#201 | COGENT 🎯
DU IBA BBA 2015-16 | BUP FBS 2020-21
(adjective) -- clear, logical, and convincing; powerfully persuasive because of strong, well-structured reasoning and evidence.
Synonyms/Related: compelling, persuasive, convincing, forceful, logical, sound, well-reasoned, incisive, irrefutable
Adjective: cogent | Adverb: cogently | Noun: cogency
Example Sentences:
The consultant's cogent analysis left the board with no serious objection to the proposed restructuring.
Her cogent argument dismantled the opposition's position within the first three minutes of the debate.
The policy brief was backed by cogent data from three independent sources, making it difficult to dismiss.
Note: From Latin cogere -- "to drive together, to compel" (co- = together, agere = to drive). A cogent argument is one where the parts fit together so tightly that the conclusion feels forced -- in a good way.
Distinguish from persuasive (which may rely on emotion or rhetoric) -- cogent specifically implies logical force. A cogent argument is hard to refute because it is correct, not merely appealing. Key collocations: "cogent argument," "cogent analysis," "cogent reasoning," "cogent case."
Cross-reference with lucid (#204) -- a lucid explanation is clear; a cogent one is clear and logically irresistible.
বাংলা: অকাট্য, জোরালো, যুক্তিপূর্ণ
Cogent মানে এমন যুক্তি যা এতটাই সুগঠিত এবং প্রমাণভিত্তিক যে সহজে খণ্ডন করা যায় না।
Persuasive থেকে আলাদা -- persuasive আবেগেও হতে পারে; cogent শুধুমাত্র যুক্তির জোরে।
Key collocation: "cogent argument," "cogent case," "cogent reasoning।"
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "কোজেন্ট = কো (একসাথে) + জেন্ট (ভদ্রলোক) -- ভদ্রলোকেরা একসাথে বসে যে অকাট্য যুক্তি দেয়।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: আদালতে আইনজীবীর cogent যুক্তির কাছে বিপক্ষ দল পুরোপুরি পরাস্ত হলো।
#202 | DUBIOUS
SAT PB 2004-05 | DU IBA BBA 2012-13, 2015-16
(adjective) -- hesitant or doubtful; of questionable quality, honesty, or reliability; arousing suspicion.
Synonyms/Related: doubtful, suspicious, questionable, uncertain, unreliable, skeptical, suspect, shady, equivocal
Adjective: dubious | Adverb: dubiously | Noun: dubiousness, dubiety
Example Sentences:
Investors were dubious about the startup's revenue projections, which had tripled without any clear explanation.
His dubious explanation for missing the deadline raised concerns among the project team about his reliability.
The company's dubious financial practices eventually attracted regulatory scrutiny and a formal investigation.
Note: From Latin dubius -- "wavering, uncertain" (duo = two, implying going back and forth between two possibilities). Dubious works in two ways: to describe a person who feels doubtful ("she was dubious") and to describe something that inspires doubt ("a dubious claim").
The second use is more common in formal writing. Distinguish from suspicious -- dubious implies uncertainty without necessarily implying deliberate wrongdoing; suspicious implies something more actively wrong. Key collocations: "dubious claim," "dubious distinction," "dubious character," "dubious quality."
বাংলা: সন্দেহজনক, দ্বিধাগ্রস্ত, যার উপর ভরসা করা কঠিন
Dubious মানে এমন কিছু বা কেউ যা বিশ্বাসযোগ্য মনে হয় না -- হয় দাবিটি প্রশ্নবিদ্ধ, নয়তো ব্যক্তিটি সন্দেহজনক।
"Dubious honour" বা "dubious distinction" -- এগুলো interesting collocation: এমন কিছু যা সম্মানজনক হওয়ার ভান করে কিন্তু আসলে নয়।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "ডাব (dub) + ইয়াস -- রাস্তার কাটা ডাবের পানি পরিষ্কার কিনা তা নিয়ে মনে dubious সন্দেহ।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: তার আয়ের উৎস বেশ dubious -- তাই তদন্ত সংস্থা তার বিষয়ে খোঁজ নিচ্ছে।
203. infallible ✨
IBA DU BBA 2015-16
(adjective) -- incapable of making mistakes or being wrong; completely reliable and never failing.
Synonyms/Related: unerring, faultless, flawless, perfect, reliable, dependable, unfailing, foolproof, impeccable
Adjective: infallible | Adverb: infallibly | Noun: infallibility | Opposite: fallible
Example Sentences:
No matter how sophisticated the technology, no system is entirely infallible -- human oversight remains essential.
The elderly doctor's diagnosis was so consistently accurate that junior colleagues treated his judgment as nearly infallible.
The old map, stained and worn, proved an infallible guide to the location of the underground spring.
Note: From Latin infallibilis -- "not liable to err" (in- = not, fallere = to deceive or fail). The root fallere also gives us fallacy, fallible, and false.
In Catholic doctrine, "papal infallibility" is a specific theological claim that the Pope cannot err on matters of faith -- an important cultural context for this word. In everyday use, infallible is often used with irony: "my infallible recipe" usually implies gentle self-confidence rather than literal perfection. Key collocations: "infallible guide," "infallible method," "no one is infallible."
বাংলা: অভ্রান্ত, অমোঘ, যে কখনো ভুল করে না
Infallible মানে এমন কিছু বা কেউ যা কখনো ভুল হয় না। শব্দটির মূলে আছে Latin fallere -- যা থেকে fallacy এবং fallible-ও এসেছে।
Fallible (ভুলপ্রবণ) এর বিপরীত। "No one is infallible" -- এই phrase টি IBA-তে বহুবার এসেছে।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "ইন (না) + ফল (fall/পড়া) + আবল = যে কখনো ভুল করে পড়ে যায় না।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: প্রযুক্তির যতই উন্নতি হোক, কোনো যন্ত্রই শতভাগ infallible নয়।
#204 | LUCID
DU IBA BBA 2015-16 | IBA JU 2015-16 | IBA DU BBA 2004-05
(adjective) -- expressed clearly and easy to understand; mentally sharp, coherent, and rational.
Synonyms/Related: clear, intelligible, coherent, transparent, limpid, comprehensible, cogent, articulate
Adjective: lucid, pellucid | Verb: elucidate | Adverb: lucidly | Noun: lucidity
Example Sentences:
The professor offered a lucid breakdown of the economic crisis, making it accessible to students from all disciplines.
After hours of fever-induced confusion, she had a sudden lucid moment in which the solution became obvious.
The consultant was asked to elucidate the financial report for board members who lacked a technical background.
Note: From Latin lux/lucis -- "light." The same root gives luminous, translucent, and elucidate. Three related words carry the same root: lucid (clear in thought or expression), pellucid (extremely clear -- often used of water or glass), and elucidate (verb: to throw light on something, to explain).
A lucid explanation is simply clear; a pellucid one is almost transparent in its clarity -- a slightly elevated literary term. To elucidate is to actively clarify something. In medical contexts, a "lucid interval" means a period of mental clarity between episodes of confusion. Key collocations: "lucid explanation," "lucid prose," "lucid moment," "elucidate a point."
বাংলা: প্রাঞ্জল, পরিষ্কার, সহজবোধ্য; (elucidate) ব্যাখ্যা করা
Lucid মানে এমন ভাষা বা চিন্তা যা পরিষ্কার, সহজবোধ্য -- পড়লে বা শুনলে মাথায় আলো জ্বলে ওঠে।
Pellucid আরও তীব্র -- প্রায় স্বচ্ছ কাচের মতো পরিষ্কার। Elucidate মানে আলো ফেলে কোনো কিছু স্পষ্ট করা।
মনে রাখুন: lucid (adjective, clear) vs. elucidate (verb, to clarify)।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "লুসিড = লুক্স (lux/আলো) -- আলোর মতো পরিষ্কার।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: লেখকের lucid ভাষার কারণেই কঠিন বিজ্ঞানের বইটি সাধারণ মানুষের কাছে জনপ্রিয় হয়েছে।
#205 | INTELLIGIBLE
DU IBA BBA 2015-16 | PM-15
(adjective) -- able to be understood; comprehensible to the intended audience.
Synonyms/Related: comprehensible, understandable, clear, lucid, decipherable, coherent, legible (for text), audible (for speech)
Adjective: intelligible | Adverb: intelligibly | Noun: intelligibility | Opposite: unintelligible
Example Sentences:
The lawyer presented an intelligible argument, laying out the facts so clearly that even non-specialists on the jury could follow.
His handwriting was barely intelligible, making it almost impossible to read the critical instructions he had scrawled on the contract.
The scientist reduced the complex dataset into an intelligible summary that policymakers could actually act upon.
Note: From Latin intelligibilis -- "that can be understood" (inter- = between, legere = to read or choose). The root legere also gives us legible, intelligent, and eligible.
The key distinction: intelligible describes something that can be understood (it has clarity); intelligent describes a person who can understand (they have capacity). They are not interchangeable. Opposite: unintelligible (impossible to understand -- "his speech was unintelligible due to the noise"). Key collocations: "barely intelligible," "intelligible explanation," "intelligible to a non-specialist."
বাংলা: বোধগম্য, সহজে বোঝা যায় এমন
Intelligible মানে এমন কিছু যা সহজে বোঝা যায় -- এটি বক্তা বা লেখকের স্পষ্টতার গুণ।
Intelligent (বুদ্ধিমান) থেকে আলাদা -- intelligent মানে যে বোঝে; intelligible মানে যা বোঝার যোগ্য।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "ইন্টেলিজেন্ট মানুষরা যেকোনো বিষয় intelligible করে বলতে পারেন।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: কোম্পানির নতুন নিয়মাবলি এতটাই জটিল ভাষায় লেখা যে তা সাধারণ কর্মীদের কাছে মোটেও intelligible নয়।
#206 | BANAL
DU IBA BBA 2015-16 | DU IBA June 2015, June 2017
(adjective) -- so lacking in originality as to be obvious and uninteresting; predictable, trite, and creatively empty.
Synonyms/Related: trite, clichéd, hackneyed, mundane, pedestrian, commonplace, unoriginal, insipid, vapid
Adjective: banal | Noun: banality | Adverb: banally
Example Sentences:
The film's banal plot -- boy meets girl, loses her, wins her back -- offered nothing that audiences had not seen a hundred times before.
The meeting was filled with banal observations that could have been sent as a two-line email, saving everyone forty minutes.
The advertisement relied on banal clichés instead of anything genuinely new or surprising.
Note: Originally from Old French banal -- "belonging to compulsory feudal service," meaning common to all, hence ordinary. Over time it came to mean whatever is so widely shared that it has lost all interest.
Compare with hackneyed (#208) -- both describe overused content, but banal often implies shallowness of thought, while hackneyed specifically refers to overuse of phrases or expressions. The noun banality is very useful: "the banality of the speech was remarkable." Key collocations: "banal conversation," "banal plot," "banal observations," "the banality of evil" (Hannah Arendt -- a famous philosophical usage).
বাংলা: গতানুগতিক, একঘেয়ে, মামুলি, নতুনত্বহীন
Banal মানে এমন কিছু যা এতই পরিচিত এবং পুরোনো যে কোনো আগ্রহ বা উদ্দীপনা তৈরি করে না।
Hackneyed (#208)-এর মতো, কিন্তু banal বলতে চিন্তার অগভীরতা বোঝায়; hackneyed বোঝায় অতিব্যবহৃত শব্দ বা phrase।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "ব্যান + অল (ban all) -- এতটাই একঘেয়ে যে সব নিষিদ্ধ করে দাও।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: প্রধান অতিথির banal ভাষণ শুনে উপস্থিত সবাই বিরক্ত হয়ে পড়েছিল।
#207 | FABLED
(adjective) -- famous, especially by widespread reputation; mythical, legendary, or celebrated in stories and tradition.
Synonyms/Related: legendary, mythical, celebrated, renowned, storied, storied, acclaimed, famed, illustrious
Adjective: fabled | Noun: fable | Related: fabulous (from the same root)
Example Sentences:
The fabled hospitality of the Sylhet region draws visitors who come expecting generosity and leave having found it in full measure.
Investors spoke in hushed tones about the fabled startup that had reportedly turned fifty thousand taka into fifty crore in under three years.
The archaeologist had spent twenty years searching for the fabled library of Alexandria -- or at least whatever fragment of it might remain.
Note: From Latin fabula -- "story, tale" (fari = to speak). A fable is a short story (usually with animal characters) conveying a moral; fabled describes something so famous that it has passed into the status of a story or legend.
Note that fabled can imply something is real but extraordinarily famous, or something that may not exist at all. Context determines which. The adjective fabulous comes from the same root -- originally meaning "belonging to fable," later evolving to mean extraordinary. Key collocations: "fabled hospitality," "fabled wealth," "fabled city," "fabled success."
বাংলা: বিখ্যাত, কিংবদন্তিতুল্য, গল্পকথিত; (fable) নীতিকথা
Fabled মানে এমন কিছু যার খ্যাতি এতটাই ছড়িয়েছে যে তা প্রায় কিংবদন্তি হয়ে গেছে।
Fable মানে নীতিকথা বা রূপকথা -- যেখানে সাধারণত পশুপাখি চরিত্র হিসেবে থাকে এবং কোনো নৈতিক শিক্ষা দেওয়া হয়।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "ফেবেল (fable) থেকে fabled -- যার গল্প নীতিকথায় পরিণত হয়েছে।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: প্রাচীনকালে এই ফারাওদের fabled সম্পদের কথা দেশ-বিদেশে মানুষের মুখে মুখে ফিরত।
#208 | HACKNEYED
(adjective) -- made commonplace and stale through overuse; lacking freshness or originality due to constant repetition.
Synonyms/Related: clichéd, trite, banal, overused, tired, stale, worn-out, threadbare, commonplace
Adjective: hackneyed | Related noun: cliché (the output -- a hackneyed phrase)
Example Sentences:
The marketing campaign was dismissed for relying on hackneyed imagery -- generic smiling families that no one could relate to.
His speech was full of hackneyed expressions, each one more predictable than the last.
The romantic comedy's hackneyed ending -- the airport declaration of love -- drew groans rather than sighs from the audience.
Note: From "hackney" -- originally a horse let out for common hire in 14th-century London. Because hackney horses were used by anyone, they became associated with the ordinary and overused; by extension, hackneyed came to mean worn out through overuse.
Distinguish from banal (#206) -- banal implies shallow thought; hackneyed specifically implies a phrase or idea that was once fresh but has been repeated so many times it has lost all impact. "Actions speak louder than words" is no longer a cogent aphorism in most speeches -- it has become hackneyed. Key collocations: "hackneyed phrase," "hackneyed plot," "hackneyed cliché" (somewhat redundant but common).
বাংলা: অতিব্যবহৃত, বস্তাপচা, যা বারবার ব্যবহারে আকর্ষণ হারিয়েছে
Hackneyed মানে এমন কিছু যা একসময় তাজা ছিল, কিন্তু এত বার ব্যবহৃত হয়েছে যে এখন শুনলে ক্লান্তি লাগে।
Banal (চিন্তার অগভীরতা) থেকে আলাদা -- hackneyed বিশেষভাবে phrase বা ধারণার অতিব্যবহারের কথা বলে।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "হ্যাক + নি (knee/হাঁটু) -- হাঁটুর মতো ক্ষয়ে গেছে, বারবার ব্যবহারে বস্তাপচা।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: আধুনিক সিনেমায় এমন hackneyed প্রেমের গল্প দর্শক আর দেখতে চায় না।
#209 | ANECDOTE
DU IBA BBA 2015-16 | DU IBA May 2018
(noun) -- a short, entertaining, or illuminating story about a real person or incident, used to illustrate a point or entertain.
Synonyms/Related: story, tale, account, vignette, narrative, reminiscence, yarn, episode
Noun: anecdote | Adjective: anecdotal | Adverb: anecdotally
Example Sentences:
The professor opened the lecture with an amusing anecdote about his first failed experiment, immediately winning the audience's attention.
The CEO used a self-deprecating anecdote to explain the company's core value of learning from failure.
Anecdotal evidence from a handful of patients cannot substitute for controlled clinical trial data -- the distinction matters enormously in medical research.
Note: From Greek anekdota -- "things unpublished" (an- = not, ekdidonai = to publish). Originally, anecdote referred to private or unpublished accounts of events -- stories not yet known publicly. Over time, it shifted to mean a short personal story.
The adjective anecdotal is critical in academic and scientific writing: "anecdotal evidence" means evidence based on personal stories rather than systematic data -- and is considered weak in research contexts. Key collocations: "amusing anecdote," "personal anecdote," "anecdotal evidence," "share an anecdote." Cross-reference with aphorism (#219) -- an anecdote is a story; an aphorism is a condensed truth in a single sentence.
বাংলা: উপাখ্যান, ছোট মজার বা শিক্ষণীয় সত্য ঘটনার গল্প
Anecdote মানে কোনো বাস্তব ঘটনার সংক্ষিপ্ত, আকর্ষণীয় গল্প যা কোনো বক্তব্যকে জীবন্ত করে তোলে।
"Anecdotal evidence" -- এই phrase একাডেমিক লেখায় গুরুত্বপূর্ণ: এটি ব্যক্তিগত গল্প থেকে আসা দুর্বল প্রমাণ, পদ্ধতিগত গবেষণা নয়।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "অ্যান্ট + ডট -- পিঁপড়ার বিন্দু আকৃতির সারি দেখে যত মজার গল্প (anecdote) মনে আসে।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: বক্তা তার বক্তব্যের মাঝে নিজের জীবনের একটি শিক্ষণীয় anecdote শেয়ার করে সবার মনোযোগ ধরে রেখেছিলেন।
#210 | LAUD
BCS 31st | DU IBA BBA 2015-16
(verb) -- to praise highly and publicly; to express deep admiration for someone's achievement or quality.
Synonyms/Related: praise, extol, commend, applaud, acclaim, glorify, celebrate, honour, exalt
Verb: laud | Adjective: laudable (praiseworthy), laudatory (expressing praise) | Adverb: laudably | Noun: laudation
Example Sentences:
The team leader lauded every member by name after the project came in ahead of schedule and under budget.
The international journal lauded the young researcher's findings as a potential turning point in the treatment of drug-resistant infections.
Her laudable commitment to transparency throughout the crisis earned her the organisation's trust in a way that no policy document could have.
Note: From Latin laus/laudis -- "praise." Three related forms matter for exams: laud (verb -- to praise), laudable (adjective -- deserving praise: "a laudable effort"), and laudatory (adjective -- expressing praise: "a laudatory review").
Distinguish laudable from laudatory -- a laudable action deserves praise; a laudatory speech gives praise. These are frequently confused in MCQ questions. Key collocations: "laud someone's efforts," "laudable achievement," "laudatory remarks," "widely lauded."
বাংলা: উচ্চ প্রশংসা করা, স্তুতি করা
Laud মানে কাউকে প্রকাশ্যে এবং আন্তরিকভাবে উচ্চ প্রশংসা করা।
গুরুত্বপূর্ণ পার্থক্য: laudable (প্রশংসার যোগ্য) vs. laudatory (প্রশংসাব্যঞ্জক)। "A laudable effort" -- উদ্যোগটি ভালো। "A laudatory speech" -- বক্তৃতাটি প্রশংসামূলক।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "লাউড (loud) + ড -- জোরে কণ্ঠে প্রশংসা করাই laud।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: বন্যা দুর্গতদের পাশে দাঁড়ানো তরুণদের সমাজের সর্বস্তরে laud করা হচ্ছে।
#211 | INSOLENT
BCS 18th | DU IBA June 2012 | DU IBA BBA 2015-16
(adjective) -- showing a rude and contemptuous lack of respect toward others, especially authority figures.
Synonyms/Related: impudent, impertinent, disrespectful, arrogant, brazen, contemptuous, cheeky, defiant, presumptuous
Adjective: insolent | Adverb: insolently | Noun: insolence
Example Sentences:
His insolent response to the senior client's question shocked everyone in the boardroom into silence.
The student was formally reprimanded for his insolent behaviour toward the department head during the faculty meeting.
There is a fine line between confident self-assertion and insolent disregard for those one works with.
Note: From Latin insolens -- "unusual, arrogant" (in- = not, solere = to be accustomed). The original sense was "going beyond what is customary" -- hence behaving in ways that overstep accepted social boundaries.
Cross-reference with impertinent (which can mean both rude AND irrelevant) -- insolent is always specifically about disrespect toward authority or social position. Also compare with contumely (#212), which refers to the insulting language itself; insolent describes the attitude. Key collocations: "insolent behaviour," "insolent remark," "insolent tone," "rank insolence."
বাংলা: উদ্ধত, বেয়াদব, অসম্মানজনক আচরণকারী
Insolent মানে এমন কেউ যিনি সামাজিক মর্যাদা বা কর্তৃত্বের প্রতি অশ্রদ্ধা দেখান।
Impertinent থেকে আলাদা: impertinent প্রাসঙ্গিক না হওয়া এবং বেয়াদবি উভয়ই বোঝাতে পারে; insolent শুধু অশ্রদ্ধার আচরণ।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "ইন (না) + সোল (soul/বিবেক) -- যার ভেতরে বিবেক নেই, সে insolent।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: বসের মুখের ওপর এমন insolent মন্তব্য করার কারণে তাকে তাৎক্ষণিক বরখাস্ত করা হয়।
#212 | CONTUMELY
(noun) -- insolent or insulting language or treatment; scornful abuse that publicly humiliates.
Synonyms/Related: scorn, humiliation, disdain, insult, contempt, derision, disrespect, abuse, indignity
Noun: contumely | Adjective: contumelious | Adverb: contumeliously
Example Sentences:
The CEO's harsh public remarks were widely described as contumely, and several board members distanced themselves from him.
She endured years of contumely from dismissive critics but maintained her composure and continued producing her best work.
The memo, filled with contumelious language directed at junior staff, was leaked and caused an immediate HR crisis.
Note: From Latin contumelia -- "insult, affront" (possibly from contemnere = to despise). Contumely is a formal and literary word -- it appears in Shakespeare ("the proud man's contumely" in Hamlet's "To be or not to be" soliloquy) and in elevated academic writing.
Distinguish from contempt (the internal feeling of disdain) -- contumely is the external expression of that contempt in insulting language or treatment. Also related to contumacy (#213) -- contumely is verbal abuse directed outward; contumacy is defiant disobedience directed against authority. Key collocations: "heap contumely upon," "endure contumely," "public contumely."
বাংলা: অপমান, অবজ্ঞা, অপমানজনক কথা বা আচরণ
Contumely মানে এমন ভাষা বা আচরণ যা কাউকে প্রকাশ্যে অপমানিত বা হেয় করে।
Contempt (অভ্যন্তরীণ অবজ্ঞার অনুভূতি) থেকে আলাদা -- contumely হলো সেই অবজ্ঞার বাহ্যিক প্রকাশ।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "কস্টিউম + আলি -- কুৎসিত কস্টিউমের জন্য অপমানজনক কথা শোনা।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: প্রকাশ্যে এমন contumely-র শিকার হয়ে তিনি নীরবে সেখান থেকে চলে যান।
#213 | CONTUMACY
(noun) -- stubborn refusal to obey authority, especially a court order; willful and persistent defiance of legitimate authority.
Synonyms/Related: defiance, insubordination, disobedience, rebelliousness, intractability, recalcitrance, non-compliance
Noun: contumacy | Adjective: contumacious | Adverb: contumaciously
Example Sentences:
The defendant's contumacy -- repeatedly ignoring court summons -- resulted in an additional charge of contempt.
The contumacious employee disregarded every safety protocol despite three formal written warnings, leaving management no choice but to terminate him.
The supplier's contumacy in refusing to honour the contract forced the company to pursue legal remedies.
Note: From Latin contumacia -- "stubbornness" (contemnere = to despise, to defy). Contumacy appears most often in legal contexts: refusing to appear in court, ignoring judicial orders, or persistently defying regulatory authority.
Distinguish the three related words carefully: contumacy (the act of defiance), contumacious (the adjective -- stubbornly defiant), contumely (#212) (insulting language -- different concept entirely despite the similar spelling). In IBA exams, confusing contumacy and contumely is a classic trap.
বাংলা: অবাধ্যতা, একগুঁয়েমিভাবে কর্তৃত্ব অমান্য করা
Contumacy মানে ইচ্ছাকৃতভাবে এবং ক্রমাগত বৈধ কর্তৃত্ব -- বিশেষত আদালতের আদেশ -- অমান্য করা।
Contumely (#212) থেকে সম্পূর্ণ আলাদা: contumacy হলো অবাধ্যতার কাজ; contumely হলো অপমানজনক ভাষা।
মনে রাখার সহজ উপায়: "ক্যান্ট + ইউ + মেক + মি = তুমি আমাকে দিয়ে এটা করাতে পারবে না -- সেটাই contumacy।"
বাংলা বাক্যে প্রয়োগ: বারবার সতর্ক করার পরও তার contumacy-র কারণে কোম্পানি তাকে আইনি নোটিশ পাঠাতে বাধ্য হয়।